Suggested Guidelines

·        Using The Sky, print a map of the constellation.

·        Determine the distances to the brightest stars and construct a 3-D model of this constellation. Use a scale of 1:100 (1 cm equals 100 light years)

·        List each star in order of apparent magnitude and describe their actual magnitude, spectral class, mass and present life stage.

·        Describe all deep sky objects found within the boundaries of the constellation.

·        Briefly describe (1 to 2 pages, typed, double spaced) the classical mythological story associated with this constellation. Also describe one non-western myth associated with this constellation. Cite sources for these stories.

·        Resources: Will Tiron’s Sky Atlas 2000.0; Sky and Telescope Magazine (LMC); Guy Ottewell’s Astronomical Companion and Astronommical Calendar 2001; Audubon’s Guide to the Night Sky; Peterson’s Guide to the Night Sky;

The 3-D model, and write up (stellar descriptions and myths) will be assigned a due date. Grading criteria for the model, descriptions and myths will be given to the student prior to the star of the project.

II.     Presentation

Present your adopted constellation to class and explain how to find it, the times of the year its best seen, its most interesting deep sky features, its myths, historical and current research on stars and or objects. Make it a visually interesting presentation lasting 8 to 10 minutes (no more than 15 minutes). Presentations can be given in class, in the planetarium or possibly room 310. Students are encouraged to adopt a vehicle of presentation they are comfortable with; e.g.: lecture with chalk and overhead; posters; hands-on demonstrations; power point, et cetera. Students should also practice their presentations after school prior to giving them. Students needing to use the planetarium will be supervised and given guided practice.

n.b.      Presentations will be assigned and given through out the year. Students will be given a rubric for the presentation. 

Unit 3: Observational Technology

“Increasingly sophisticated technology is used to learn about the universe. Visual, radio, and X-ray telescopes collect information from across the entire spectrum of electromagnetic waves; computers handle an avalanche of data and increasingly complicated computations to interpret them; space probes send back data and materials from remote parts of the solar system; and accelerators give subatomic particles energies that simulate conditions in the stars and in the early history of the universe before stars formed.”                Project 2061: Physical Setting

n.b       the emphasis on this unit is on the use of telescopes and binoculars for making observations.

3.1       Technology is a vehicle through which we have reached our present understanding astronomy.

3.2       Astrolabes measure the altitude of celestial objects

A.     Apparent separation and diameter of distant objects are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc.

B.     Size and distances can be determined using proportional triangles.

.

3.3       The fundamental observation is a transit. A transit occurs when a celestial object crosses local meridian.

A.     Local meridian is a line that passes through the observer’s location and connects to Earth’s poles of rotation. Meridian posts can be established using a compass/transit.

B.     Sextants are used to determine local noon.

C.     Superior conjunctions are transits of outer planets.

D.     Inferior conjunctions are transits of inner planets.

3.4       Telescope gather light, resolve faint details and magnify electromagnetic energy.

A.     The most important function of a telescope is to gather light.

B.     Resolution is the smallest separation that can be seen at a given distance

C.     As magnification increases resolution decreases.

3.5       There are three basic telescope designs: Refractors, reflectors and compound. Each design has its advantages and limitations.

3.6       Pinhole telescopes (camera obscuras) and refractors built from household materials can be used to make terrestrial and astronomical measurement (distance and size) using triangles.

3.7       Telescopes can be calibrated to aid in determining the distance to objects.

3.8       Earth’s atmosphere affects incoming stellar electromagnetic energy.

A.     Sky transparency and “seeing” are dependent on atmospheric conditions and light pollution.

B.     Ground based telescopes are limited to visible light and radio wavelengths due to Earth’s atmosphere.

3.8       Telescopes are classified by aperture and focal ratios.

A.     Eyepiece magnification is determined by focal length of primary

3.9       Visible light telescopes have limitations due to the size of wavelengths and obstructions (i.e. dust and gases).

A.     Telescopes can also be designed to look at other wavelengths - U.V., IR, X-ray, Gamma Ray, typically from space.

B.     Radio Astronomy with Dr. Joe Onello:  Working astronomer will lecture on his work in radio astronomy.

3.10     Students will demonstrate their knowledge of technology by operating a telescope and or binocular based on the following guidelines:

A.  Binoculars

·        Binoculars require an eyepiece and barrel adjustment before use.

·        Magnification, aperture and field of view are listed on binoculars.

·        Binoculars suited for astronomy have a minimum of 1 power per 5 millimeter of aperture.

·        Tripods greatly enhance binocular views by increasing stability.

·        Binoculars are better suited for wide field observations such as open star cluster, than telescopes are.

 B   Telescopes

·        Refractors are best suited for bright objects such as planets, stars and the moon.

·        Reflectors are best suited for faint, deep sky objects.

·        All things (optics) being equal, the tripod mounting determines the telescopes ease of use and performance.

·        Barlow lens double or triple the power of an eyepiece

·        Solar filters that mount to eyepieces should never be used.

·        Aperture is the most important characteristic when buying a telescope

·        Focal lengths of eyepiece and primary lens determine magnification

·        Until recently, the best telescopes where home made.

Unit Three Assessments

1.         Buy A Telescope Exercise – Students will research buying observing equipment based on the following parameters:

A) A all equipment will be purchased with a budget of  $1000.

B) Devise a set of criteria for the equipment based on observing needs. These needs will specifically address: types of object to be observed, location or observing site characteristics, imaging requirements if any; types of mounts; costs and comparisons of features between manufacturers.

2.         Students will work through Project Star labs that explore: determining distances using proportional triangles; building, using and calibrating telescopes.

3.         Given a telescope or binoculars determine the following: Focal length; aperture; focal ratio; magnification, field of view; resolution

4.         Students will demonstrate their understanding of the historical evolution of ideas and technology in astronomy by producing a timeline. The timeline must delineate the relationship between the introduction and application of new technology to deal with a cultural, economic or scientific problems and advances or the discoveries in astronomy they produced.

Unit 4: Models of the Universe

(n.b. all italicized portions of this unit are Project 2061: Historical Perspective standards).

4.1       Astronomers historically have devised theoretical models to account for their qualitative and quantitative observations.

People perceive that the Earth is large and stationary and that all other objects in the sky orbit around it. That perception was the basis for theories of how the universe is organized that prevailed for over 2000 years.

Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer living in the second century A.D., devised a powerful mathematical model of the universe based on constant motion in perfect circles, and circles on circles. With the model, he was able to predict the motions of the sun, moon, and stars, and even the irregular “wandering stars” now called planets.

4.2       The geocentric model

A.     All ground-based observations seem to suggest that Earth is the center of the universe.

B.     Aristotle observations “prove” that the Earth does not move.

C.     Claudius Ptolemy is credited with synthesizing the celestial sphere - the Sun, Moon, planets and stars move about a stationary Earth

4.3       The celestial sphere demonstrates the geocentric model.

A.     2 dimensional model of the motions of the Sun, planets and stars.

B.     Right ascension and declination are the coordinates used to locate objects

C.     Estimates of angles can be made using an outstretched hand

D.     Epicycles are needed to make the retrograde motions of planets fit the model.

E.      The planetarium is a projection of the celestial sphere.

4.4       The heliocentric model

A.     Copernicus devises the model that planets orbit the Sun in perfect circles.

In the 16^th century, a Polish astronomer named Copernicus suggested that all those same motions could be explained by imagining that the Earth was turning around once a day and orbiting around the Sun once a year. This explanation was rejected by nearly everyone because it violated common sense and required the universe to unbelievably large. Worse, it flew in the face of the belief, universally held at the time, that the Earth was the center of the universe.

B.     Galileo finds qualitative evidence to support the model.

Using the newly invented telescope to study the sky, Galileo made many discoveries that supported the ideas of Copernicus. It was Galileo who found the moons of Jupiter, sunspots, craters and mountains on the moon, and many more stars than were visible to the unaided eye.

Writing in Italian rather than Latin (the language of scholars at the time), Galileo presented arguments for and against the two main views of the universe in a way that favored the newer view. That brought the issue to the educated people of the time and created political, religious, and scientific controversy.

C.     Tycho Brahe finds quantitative evidence to support the model.

Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer living at about the same time as Galileo, showed mathematically that Copernicus’ idea of a sun-centered system worked well if uniform circular motion was replaced with uneven (but predictable) motion along off-center ellipses.

D.     Kepler’s first law is that all planets move in elliptical orbits. Kepler’s second law is that a line drawn between a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas over equal periods of time. Kepler’s third law is that the period of a planets revolution is proportional to its distance from the Sun.  Students should understand the relationship between the variables in Kepler’s equations but will not have to solve quantitative problems.

4.5       Gravity is the force that keeps planets in orbit around the Sun

Isaac Newton created a unified view of force and motion in which motion everywhere in the universe can be explained by the same few rules. His mathematical analysis of gravitational force and motion showed that planetary orbits had to be the very ellipses that Kepler had proposed two generations earlier.

Newton’s system was based on the concepts of mass, force, and acceleration, his three laws relating them, and a physical law stating that the force of gravity between any two objects in the universe depends only upon their masses and the distances between them.

The Newtonian model made it possible to account for such diverse phenomena as tides, the orbits of planets and moons, the motion of falling objects, and the earth’s equatorial bulge.

For several centuries, Newton’s science was accepted without major changes because it explained so many different phenomena, could be used to predict many physical events (such as the appearance of Halley’s comet), was mathematically sound, and had many practical applications.

Although overtaken in the 20^th century by Einstein’s relativity theory, Newton’s ideas persist and are widely used. Moreover, his influence has extended far beyond physics and astronomy, serving as a model for other science and even raising philosophical questions about free will and the organization of social systems.

A.     Isaac Newton’s synthesis of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler’s observations leads to equation of gravity.

B.     Newton devised three laws of motion 1) inertia 2) forces 3) equal and opposite forces.

C.     Theory/Law of gravity: the force of attraction between object is proportional to their mass and inverse to their distance squared.

As a young man, Albert Einstein, a German scientist, formulated the special theory of relativity, which brought about revolutionary changes in human understanding of nature. A decade later, he proposed the general theory of relativity, which, along with Newton’s work, ranks as one of the greatest human accomplishments in all of history.

Among the surprising ideas of special relativity is that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, which is the same for all observers no matter how they or the light source happen to be moving.

The special theory of relativity is best known for stating that any form of energy has mass, and that matter itself is a form of energy. The famous relativity equation E=mc² holds that the transformation of even a tiny amount of matter will release an enormous amount of other forms of energy, in that the c in the equation stands for the immense speed of light.

General relativity theory pictures Newton’s gravitational force as a distortion of space and time.

Many predictions from Einstein’s theory of relativity have been confirmed on both atomic and astronomical scales. Still the research continues for an even more powerful theory of the architecture of the universe.

Assessment – Building Scale Models

Portions of the historical perspective are taught in PS: ES. Consequently students should not be assessed on literal content using a multiple choice, paper and pencil method. Instead students will apply the historical models to answer the general question: How can distances in the solar system, galaxy be modeled?

Construct the models below using basic household materials. Make sure distances are to scale as best understood at the time.

1.         You are Claudius Ptolemy. Build a model of the constellation Leo. Include the ecliptic and the path of the planet Mars before during and after a superior transit or conjunction. Briefly write about the merits of the model, its usefulness in its ability to predict celestial motions and the modifications needed to. This could be done as a set of drawings or perhaps using a set of inexpensive mixing bowls.

 2.        You are Isaac Newton. Build a model of the constellation Leo, including the path of Mars during a retrograde motion. Outline the merits of this model and describe the reasons why Ptolemaic model is incorrect.

3.         You are Albert Einstein. Build a model of the solar system based on the theory of relativity,

Unit 5: The Origin of the Solar System

5.1       Any speculation on the origin of the solar system must take into account the following observations: (after William K. Hartmann)

A.     All planets lie in roughly a single plane.

B.     The Sun’s rotational equator nearly lies in this plane.

C.     Planetary orbits are nearly circular.

D.     The planets and the Sun all revolve in the same west-to-east direction, called prograde (or direct) revolution.

E.      Planets differ in composition.

F.      The composition of planets varies roughly with distance from the Sun: dense, metal rich planets line in the inner system whereas giant, hydrogen rich planets lie in the outer solar system.

G.     Meteorites differ in chemical and geological properties from all known planetary and lunar rocks.

H.     The Sun and all the planets except Venus and Uranus rotate on their axis in the same direction (prograde).  Obliquity (tilt between equatorial and orbital planes) is generally small.

I.        Distance between planets usually obeys Titus-Bode’s Rule.

J.       Planet-satellite systems resemble the solar system.

K.    As a group, comet’s orbits define a large, almost spherical cloud around the solar system.

L.       The planets have much more angular momentum than the Sun.

5.2       Historically there have been many ideas on the origin of the solar system.

A.        1644 – Renee Descartes - Regardless of how matter was created in the beginning, it was free to evolve according to the laws of nature.

·        Space was initially filled with swirling gas in which local eddies or dense regions evolved into individual stars. 

·        Smaller eddies around stars formed planets.

B.         1745 – George Buffon  - The Sun was accidentally hit by a passing star.

·        The debris from this one time catastrophic collision formed the planets.

5.3       The current theory is the “Nebular Hypothesis:” the solar system formed from a rotating cloud of dust and gas.  This theory best supports the observations in 5.1 

A.     As material came together gravitationally it would cause the cloud to collapse and rotate.

B.     Angular momentum would be conserved because the cloud was isolated.

C.     As more material was pulled into the center of the cloud its angular momentum would increase. This would cause the cloud to form flattened disk.

D.     Material in the center of the cloud (where it is spinning the fastest) would form the Sun.

E.      The contraction of gases would cause atoms to collide with each other creating heat by friction and an increase in outward pressure.

F.      Helmholtz Contraction - The processes by which the shrinkage caused by gravitational attraction is slowed by outward pressure (1871).  This contraction would cause heat to build up in the “protosolar cloud.” Heat would have warmed up the surrounding dust cloud as well. The clouds central temperature would rise to 10 million Kelvin.

G.     The outer part of the cloud – as large as the current solar system – was heated to a few thousand degrees Kelvin.

H.     The Solar Nebula - The disk of dust and gas that formed the solar system.

I.        Particles must have moved in circular orbits.

J.       Noncircular orbits would have crossed the paths of other atoms. These collisions would slowly cancel out noncircular motion. Thus net broad scale motion would be circular.

K.    Condensation of Dust - Dust in the solar nebula was heated to at least 2000K due to Helmholtz contraction.

L.      Most atoms in the nebula were hydrogen. A small percentage of the solar nebula was silicon, iron and other planet forming material.

M.    As the solar nebula cooled condensable constituents formed tiny particles of dust. Various mineral compounds formed in a sequence (condensation sequence).

N.    Observational evidence supports the solar nebula hypothesis:

            T-Tauri Stars

            HST images: Star Pillars in M16

Assessments

1.         Students will develop a list of observations regarding the motions, organization and composition of all the objects in the solar system.

2.         Students will evaluate theories on the origin of the solar system based on the observational evidence.

3.         Why are gas giants found so far from the Sun? 

4.         Students will use the Internet to research the following questions: How do astronomers locate planets around other stars? Are their any pictures of planets outside the solar system? Are planetary star systems all organized in the same pattern as the solar system?

5.         Students will pass a test on the sequence and processes involved in the formation of the solar system. Concepts in this unit are further developed in the next unit on stars.
        Unit 6: Stars

“Stars differ from each other in size, temperature and age, but they appear to be made up of the same elements that are found on Earth and to behave according to the same physical principles. Unlike the Sun, most stars are in systems of two or more stars orbiting around one another.”

Project 2061: The Physical Setting

6.1       Luminosity and spectra are characteristics used to classify stars on the H-R diagram

A.     Stars appear to have a magnitude of brightness based on their actual luminosity and distance.

B.     Luminosity or brightness is based on the energy output and size of the star.

C.     Light passing through a diffraction grating is broken down into its component wavelengths or spectra.

6.2       Spectra are used to determine the surface temperature of a star.

A.     Wein’s law indicates that bluer wavelengths result in hotter temperatures and red wavelengths result from cooler temperatures.

6.3       Spectral analysis is used to determine the composition of stars.

A.     Specific patterns of wavelengths are absorbed by specific stellar gases producing dark bands in spectra.

B.     Specific patterns of wavelengths are emitted by elements in an excited state.

6.4       How is the distance to a star determined?

A.     The apparent shift of nearby stars due to Earth’s orbital motions is called parallax and is inversely related to a stars distance.

B.     The apparent magnitude of a star (or supernova) can be compared to its actual magnitude and distance can be determined using the inverse square law.

6.5       All stars go through a predictable pattern of life and death. The rate of evolution is and the final stages of this pattern are dependent on the initial mass of the star.

A.     Protostars from in nebula.

B.     Protostars generate frictional heat due to gravitational contraction.

C.     Protostars evolve into main sequence stars when fusion begins.

D.     Helmholtz contraction describes the dynamic equilibrium between gravitational collapse and the outward pressure generated by fusion.

E.      Main sequence stars fuse hydrogen into helium.

F.      Red giant stars fuse helium in to carbon.

G.     Nova, supernova and resulting white dwarfs, planetary nebula, neutron star or black hole are dependent on the initial mass of the star.

H.     Changes in a stars composition or mass affect its volume, luminosity and spectral class.

6.6       All elements heavier than hydrogen were formed in stars. Elements heavier than carbon form as the result of super novae.

n.b.      students will not assessed on the following equations: Stefan-Boltzman;

Assessments

1.         Students will examine HST images of star formation and do the following:

a.         Identify the type of star or celestial object and locate it on the H-R diagram..

b.         Predict the next step in stellar evolution.

c.         Using the H-R diagram, to infer qualitative comparisons of size, temperature and, luminosity.

2.         Students will observe and record emission and absorption spectra of  ionized gases using spectrometers. They will determine the composition of unknowns elements based on a reference work (poster).

3.         Students will determine distances using parallax methods.
 

Unit 7: Galaxies

7.1       Edwin Hubbell discovered that stars and nebula are organized into galaxies or “island universes.”

7.2       The solar system is located in the Milky Way Galaxy.

A.     Short galactic distances are measured in light years and parsecs.

B.     Intermediate distances in are measured in kiloparsecs

C.     Long distances in the universe are measured in megaparsecs.

D.     The Milky Way is approximate 100,000 light years in diameter. The solar system is located on the leading edge of a spiral arm, more than two thirds away from the center of the Milky Way.

7.3       Galaxies have morphologies that allow them to be classified.

A.     The basic shapes of galaxies are described as spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, irregular, and peculiar.

B.     Hubble devised a tuning fork classification scheme for galaxies based on their morphology. The scheme is not to be interpreted as a sequence of change.

C.     Galaxies can change their shape through collisions with other galaxies.

7.4       Galaxies are named and catalogued.

A.     Messier developed on of the earliest catalogue of deep sky objects.

B.     New General Catalogue, et al.

7.5       Spiral galaxies are composed of a disk and a bulge.

A.     Disks are composed of stars and nebulae. Single, double, multiple and open clusters of stars are found in the disk. Nebulae are clouds of dust and gas where stars form or have died. Stars in disk are relatively young.

B.     Globular clusters are found in the bulge. Globular clusters are tight groups of old, swarming stars.

7.6       Elliptical galaxies consists of a bulge composed of globular clusters and small a mounts of dust and gas.

7.7       Galaxies often appear in groups or clusters. Individual galaxies can have companions.

A.     The Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud are irregular galaxies and companions of the Milky Way.

B.     The Andromeda Galaxy has two small companion galaxies M32 and M110.

C.     The Milky Way belongs to the Local Group.

D.     The Virgo Cluster is the nearest large cluster of galaxies.

E.      The Local Group and the Virgo Cluster are members of a super cluster that is 100 megaparsecs across.

7.8       Radio, infra red, ultra violet, X-ray and gamma raw wavelengths are used to make observations that visible light cannot.

A.     Radio telescopes detect hydrogen at 21-centimeter wavelengths.\

B.     X-rays can resolve individual stars, supernova remnants, binary stars, black holes and globular clusters.

7.9       The pattern of the proper motion of stars is dependent on a the type of galaxy.

A.     Stars in elliptical galaxies move randomly as globular clusters.

B.     Stars in the disk of spiral galaxies revolve or orbit the galactic axis.

7.10     Jan Oort (1932) and Fred Zwicky (1933) both separately inferred that galaxies must contain “hidden mass” to account for their observations.

A.     The force of gravity as a function of mass determines the rotation rate of galaxies.

B.     Rotation curves of galaxies are greater than the amount of mass found in the galaxies.

C.     Astronomers infer that there is invisible, “dark matter” that must account for the high rotation curves of galaxies.

7.11     The current search for dark matter is centered on MACHOs, WIMPs and gas.

A.     Massive Compact Halo Objects may be black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs and brown dwarfs.

B.     Weakly Interacting Massive Particles may be exotic particles such as axions, heavy neutrinos and photinos.

7.12     As the universe inflated about 1 billion years after the big bang, small wrinkles developed in the rapidly expanding space. These wrinkles later formed galaxies.

1. Recent measurements in the cosmic background radiation support this hypothesis.

Assessments

Students will complete the NASA’s Imagine the Universe program in conjunction with their web page (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/) and the electronic posters “The Hidden Lives of Galaxies” located on the F-M network. At the completion of these lessons students will

1. Identify characteristics of galaxies and classify them
2. Identify unusual galaxies and understand nomenclature/catalogues
3. Describe the components of a galaxy and analyze open cluster and globular clusters.
4. Examine the evidence for the macro-motions of matter in a galaxy and recognize why scientists are currently searching for “dark matter.”
5. Concept map the structure of the universe

Unit 8: The Earth Moon System

Calendars and other time frames of reference are based on motions of the Earth and moon.

8.1       The concept of a day is based on Earth’s rotation.

A.     Earth rotates once every 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds.

B.     The time of solar noon varies throughout the year due to the affect of Earth’s orbital motion.

C.     The 24-hour day period is based on an average.

D.     Earth’s rotation is slowing down due to the tidal affect of the Moon.

8.2       The concept of a year is based on Earth’s revolution.

A.     Earth revolves around the Sun 365.25 days ( a year) at an average distance of 149,597,870 kilometers (an Astronomical Unit or A.U.). This distance is used for measuring distance in the solar system.

B.     This was the source of the Babylonians 360 degree circle. Factors of 360 are used in time keeping.

C.     Calendars have undergone revision through out history because Earth’s period of revolution is not an exact number of days.

8.3       Earth’s motions around the Sun have measurable characteristics.

A.     Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with an eccentricity of 0.016722

B.     Perihelion occurs January 4th; aphelion occurs July 4th. April 4th and October 4th are dates of exact average distances.

C.     These dates do not match the solstice and equinox dates because the foci of Earth’s orbit are slowly revolving around a common axis. This causes the longitude of perihelion to change, cyclically every 400, 000 years.

D.     Earth’s inclination or obliquity of the ecliptic (tilt) is 23 1/2 degrees.

E.      Earth tilt causes seasons.

F.      Milankovitch determined a set of orbital motions that may trigger periodic, planetary continental glaciations. There is substantial geologic evidence for this theory.

G.     The ecliptic is the apparent path the Sun makes through the zodiac due to Earth’s motions.

H.     Gravity acts upon Earth’s tilt and equatorial bulge and causes precession. One complete precession occurs every 25, 800 years.

8.4       Solar system moves as a unit around the Milky Way galaxy.

A.     The Sun’s period of revolution around the Milky Way is 250 million years.

B.     The Sun’s proper motion is toward the star Vega.

8.5       The Earth and the Moon orbit the Sun together while rotating about a common center of gravity. The Baryonic center is located in the mantle of the Earth.

A.     The lunar cycle is the basis of the monthly calendar.

B.     A synodic month is 29 1/2 days.

C.     A sidereal month is 27 1/3 days

D.     The difference between a sidereal month and a synodic month is caused by Earth’s orbital motions.

E.      The moon moves approximately 13 degrees of arc in a 24-hour period.

F.      The time of moonrise is 42 minutes later each day due to lunar orbital motion.

8.6       Students will be able to identify lunar and predict lunar phases and determine the approximate time of day given a phase and it position relative to the horizon.

A.     The moon waxes or wanes from left to right.

B.     The cycle of lunar phases can be modeled using a static or dynamic Earth.

C.     Lunar phases can be observed to gradually change from moonrise to moonset.

D.     Approximate  time of day can be inferred from a lunar phase relative to the horizon (assuming a 6 AM sunrise and 6 PM sunset).

8.7       The apparent diameter of the Moon and Sun are nearly the same. Consequently, lunar and solar eclipses occur in predictable cycles.

A.     The Moon’s orbital plane is titled approximately 5^o relative to Earth’s equator causing the eclipse cycle to have a 27-year period.

B.     Many cultures derived the 27-year solar eclipse cycle.

C.     Solar eclipses are so spectacular that at they have affected the out comes of several human events.

D.     Solar eclipses have been used to study the Sun’s corona and provide evidence for the theory of relativity.

E.      Annular solar eclipses occur when the Moon is a apogee.

F.      The Dijon scale is used to measure the visible characteristics of a Lunar Eclipse.

Assessments

1.         Examine the floor mosaic of the solar system. Note that two different scales are used. Apply the scales used to construct the diameters and determine the distance that the Moon and Sun should be placed from the Earth. Given a map of the school district accurately draw the orbit of the Earth and Moon to scale using a protractor.

2.         A student attempts to draw a scale model of Earth, its orbit and the Sun. The actual diameter of the Earth is approximately 13, 000 km. The student decides that the Earth will be 1 mm in diameter for this model. How big will the diameter of Earth’s orbit be at this scale? How big will the Sun be?

3.         Use the Sky to plot the precession of Earth’s axis over the next 10,000 years.  Based on this plot, predict where Earth’s pole of rotation will be aimed at in 15, 000 years.

4.         How could one measure the Earth’s rotation to be once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds? Devise a simple method for doing this (no space ships required).

5.         Given the Sun’s proper motion, draw a simple sketch Earth’s actual motion in space as the solar system revolves around the galaxy.

6.         How do your journal observations of the sky compare with the motions of the Earth? How did people conclude that the Earth was the center of the universe? What clues from your observations indicate otherwise?

7.         Given a set of drawings/images of the phases of the moon relative to the horizon determine the time of day and predict the next phase that will occur in 7 days.

Unit 9 Comets and Meteors

9.1              Comets entering the inner part of the solar system and meteors entering Earth’s atmosphere are unexpected, non-cyclic events.

A.                 Historically, comets were seen as evil omens.

9.2              Comets are “Dirty snowballs” a few dozen kilometers in diameter.

A.                 Ice can be composed of methane, water or carbon dioxide.

B.                 The dirt is typically grains composed of silicate minerals.

9.3              Comets travel in highly elongate orbits.

9.4       The tail of a comet is gas vaporized by the Sun.

A.                 Tail grows as distance to the Sun decreases.

B.                 Solar wind blows gas and dust away from nucleus lengthening the tail millions of kilometers.

9.4              Comets may be composed of debris left over from solar system formation.

1. Comets are found in the Kupier belt and the Oort cloud.

9.5              Comets enter the inner solar system after being gravitationally perturbed.

9.6              Meteors are small grains of dust (sand sized or smaller) that burn up in Earth’s atmosphere creating a streak of light across the sky,

9.7              Meteor showers occur annually and can result in hundreds of meteors per hour. This happens when Earth passes through debris seeded in its orbit by a comet.

Assessment

1.         Students observe characteristics of impact craters formed by comets and meteorites by dropping objects in a sand box and making qualitative and quantitative measurements.

Unit 10: Planetary Science

9.1       Features observed on other planets can be described and inferred by comparing them to similar features on Earth.

1. The earth is a solid sphere of layers ordered by density.

2. Earth’s crust and mantle are composed of silicate minerals. 

3. Heat from within the Earth dissipates at the surface and expresses itself in the motions of tectonic plates and hot spots. Other features associated with tectonic activity are mid-ocean ridges, ocean basins, subduction zones, folded mountain ranges, transform margins and hot spots

4. Two assumptions are used to infer landforms and Earth’s history: I) Uniformitarianism or “the present is the key to the past.” II) Punctuated equilibrium is when eons of geologic processes are interrupted sporadically by tectonic, climatic or extraterrestrial catastropic events.

5. Weathering, erosion and deposition produce specific, predictable patterns of channels, valleys, fans, and deltas.

6. Volcanic craters are more common on Earth than impact craters. Impact craters are more common on the moon.

7. Impact craters can be used to determine a relative surface age

9.2       At the present time, remote sensing is the most practical approach to studying distant worlds.

1. Satellite images are recorded in various electromagnetic wavelengths.

2. Resolution is the greatest limiting factor in analyzing remote products.

3. 3-D and stereo imaging creates the illusion of depth in remote sensing products.

9.3       Information from other planets is dependent on several variables: the political will to support a particular space mission; the relative ease of reaching the planet; the kind of technology available to use in remote sensing units.

9.4              General background information on terrestrial planets:

A.        Mercury

• Relative closeness to the Sun increases difficulty of the missions
• Lack of potential life forms makes it a low priority
• Data is limited to the Mariner 6 mission
• Surface is heavily cratered.
• Reverse faulting suggests the planet has shrunk

B.         Venus

• A variety of space missions have visited the sister planet: Russian Venera; Magellan
• Highlands and lowlands indicate crustal differentiation
• Mountains and volcanoes similar to Earth
• Unique surface features: corona and pancake domes but fewer impact craters,
• Inference is that planets crust is still active but not using plate tectonics. New theory suggests it convulses every 500 million years.
• Atmosphere: very dense; sulfuric acid layer; contains all the carbon the planet has; runaway greenhouse effect.

C.        Mars –

• Many missions including Viking; Pathfinder; Surveyor.
• Many surface features indicate that Mars had running water in the past. A reasonable chance that life may or had existed in some form. Provides a high degree of political resolve to go to Mars.
• Meteorites found in Antarctica have been identified as Martian.
• Less cratered than Moon, but more cratered than Earth
• Largest volcano and canyon in solar system
• Many surface features suggesting running water in the past.
• Evidence for life is tantalizing
• Pseudoscience: Face On Mars

Assessments

Students will analyze remote sensing products on the Internet (including 3-D images) and answer the following general questions:

1. Describe the unique surface features of Venus and their probable causes.
2. Compare and contrasts Venusian planetary tectonic activity to Earth’s plate tectonic system.
3. What is the evidence for fluvial and depositional basins on Mars in the distant past?
4. What is the evidence for recent groundwater movement on Mars?
5. Describe the seasonal affect on polar ice caps and frost deposition.
6. Describe the seasonal affect on wind erosion and deposition.
7. How are relative surface ages determined on Mars?

Unit 11: Space Exploration and SETI

10.1          A brief history of NASA.

A.                 Why NASA was founded.

B.                 The “Right Stuff”

C.                 Political resolve and lunar missions.

10.2          Current space exploration projects in the solar system.

Due to the plethora of missions at the time of this writing (fall 2001) it has been decided to focus on two missions. This should be altered in the future as the missions are completed or as more interesting missions get underway.

A.                 Galileo

B.                 Mars Global Surveyor (Mars Orbiting Camera)

C.                 Cassinni Mission

10.4     Earth’s atmosphere is an obstacle to resolving details of the most distance objects. Space telescope provide the greatest resolution of any kind of telescope currently in service.

1. Hubble Space Telescope
2. Chandra
3. SOHO
4. Future Missions

10.5     SETI – the Search For Extraterrestrial Intelligence

1. Reasons for conducting the search with radio telescopes.
2. Carl Sagan and “Contact”
3. How students can participate directly with SETI

Supplemental Unit A: Amateur Astronomy

These learning objectives to be accomplished using night labs. Night labs at this time are not mandatory.

I.          Logistics

• How the eye works/night vision/red lights
• Ideal locations & weather conditions
• Preparing an observing run
• What to wear!
• Dealing with dew
• Using star charts/maps
• Binoculars, telescopes, camera & film

II Observations

• Aesthetic appreciation of the night sky
• Backyard astrophysics/AAVSO
• Comet hunters
• Occultions
• Irridium flares
• NEOs
• Aurora Borealis

III.       Dark skies and light pollution

• Outdoor lighting creates glare and sky glow (light pollution) that limits ones ability to see faint objects.
• Using the Little Dipper to determine limiting magnitudes
• International Dark Sky Association
• Alternative outdoor lighting

 Supplemental Unit B: Digital Imaging

B.1       Celestial objects are recorded electronically using CCD cameras

A.                 The camera is placed at the back of the telescope and connected to a computer.

B.                 All views through the telescope are seen through the computer, which makes focusing very difficult.

B.2       CCD cameras are sensitive to infrared and require cooling.

A.                 Cameras require a cooling period before imaging can occur.

B.                 Infrared energy shows up as noise in imaging. A background sample is image is taken and later subtracted from raw images during the image processing.

C.                 The difference between ambient temperature and camera temperature must be greater than 20 degrees Celsius.

B.3       Focal reducers are used with CCDs in order to reduce the image to a manageable sample size.

B.4       Multiple images are recorded in a session and used in a variety ways later during image processing.

A.                 Often several dozen images of the same object are taken while the camera is carefully tracked on the target. Variations in seeing (due to roiling in the atmosphere) have a great affect on individual images.

B.                 Often out of 2 dozen images, only a handful will be worth processing.

B.5       Image processing routines performed in software such as Photoshop © are applied to raw images to enhance subtle details.

            A.        Basic routines including smoothing out pixels, creating a mask, blurring as well as adding multiple layers of faint images to build up a final bright image.